Wakefield in the Great War Read online

  Wakefield

  in the Great War

  Your Towns and Cities in the Great War

  Wakefield

  in the Great War

  Tim Lynch

  First published in Great Britain in 2017 by

  PEN & SWORD MILITARY

  An imprint of

  Pen & Sword Books Ltd

  47 Church Street

  Barnsley

  South Yorkshire

  S70 2AS

  Copyright © Tim Lynch, 2017

  ISBN 978-1-47384-741-5

  eISBN 978-1-47384-742-2

  Mobi ISBN 978-1-47384-743-9

  The right of Tim Lynch to be identified as the author of this work has been

  asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and

  Patents Act 1988.

  A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

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  Contents

  Acknowledgements

  1. The Last Summer

  2. Your Country Needs You

  3. The Enemy in our Midst

  4. Conscripts and Conchies

  5. News from the Front

  6. They Also Serve

  7. Law and DORA

  8. Keep the Home Fires Burning

  9. Armistice and After

  Select Bibliography

  Acknowledgements

  This book owes a huge debt to the memory of Kate Taylor MBE, a passionate historian and prolific writer on Wakefield’s history and heritage. Kate had begun work on researching the city’s part in the Great War but was taken before she could begin writing her planned book. I was fortunate enough to inherit some of her material from the publisher. I hope my own research and this finished product would meet with her approval.

  Like all authors, Kate gathered material from a wide range of sources and like all historians knew that material well enough to have a catalogue in her mind of what came from where. Where possible I have acknowledged pictures and quotes from her work but the possibility of error on my part means that if I have failed to properly credit anything given to Kate I sincerely apologize and will ensure that any mistakes are corrected in future editions. Likewise the photographs used in this book are credited where the owner is known. Most come from my own collection and are taken from sources where they were originally not credited or where the original owners cannot be traced. No breach of copyright is intended and if information is received, proper acknowledgement will be made in future editions.

  I’d like to thank Roni Wilkinson at Pen & Sword for offering me the chance to write about Wakefield. Having worked in the city on and off for many years I’ve come to have a great affection for it. Thanks too, to Brian Elliott for editing my deathless prose.

  As ever, huge thanks to Jacqui, Beth and Josh for leaving me to mutter to myself over the laptop in the corner of the room and for the top ups of wine, coffee and chocolate without which the publishing industry would be a barren place. Although he’s from Keighley, my dad, Albert, can be a mine of information about the interwar years and some obscure references to long gone products and practices – the 1930s are clear but last week can sometimes be a bit hazy!

  CHAPTER 1

  The Last Summer

  On the morning of 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and his wife, Sophie, left the Town Hall in the Bosnian city of Sarajevo in a motorcade heading for the city’s hospital. Earlier that morning, after two of his comrades had decided not to go through with their plan to assassinate the pair, a third man had thrown a bomb at Ferdinand’s borrowed touring car. The device skidded across the roof, fell into the road and exploded as the following vehicle drove over it, wounding the passengers and at least sixteen of the bystanders lining the route. The Archduke had calmly carried on with the planned visit to the Town Hall, reading his speech from notes spattered with the blood of a wounded aide, but afterwards asked for a change to the itinerary so that he could go to visit the injured in hospital. Mistaken orders to the driver took the car down a wrong turning and directly into the path of 19-year-old Gavrilo Princip, another member of the Serbian group intent on killing Ferdinand as part of the fight for Serbian independence. Hemmed in by the dense crowd, Princip was unable to pull out and prime the bomb he was carrying, so instead he reached for his pistol, but couldn’t move enough to actually aim it. As he later explained, ‘Where I aimed I do not know… I even turned my head as I shot.’ The killer fired just two bullets but at such close range he could hardly miss. One shot hit Sophie in the stomach while the other struck her husband in the neck, severing his jugular vein. There was nothing any doctor could have done to save either of them. Both remained seated upright while being driven to the Governor’s residence for medical treatment and Count Harrach, one of Franz Ferdinand’s aides, heard him pleading with his dying breath: ‘Sophie, Sophie! Don’t die! Live for our children!’ Sophie was dead on arrival at the Governor’s residence. Franz Ferdinand died 10 minutes later.

  The murders shocked the diplomatic world but the deaths of one of what a British newspaper called ‘Austria’s idiot Archdukes’ and his wife in a country far away meant little to the majority of people in Britain, whose main concern at the end of June 1914 was, in keeping with proud British tradition, the weather. A heatwave was gripping the nation, with temperatures hitting ninety degrees in the shade in London, and a record 132 degrees recorded at noon on Wednesday, 1 July. Ten people had been reported dead as a result of heatstroke across the country. The news from Sarajevo was reported but was quickly overshadowed by the events of the afternoon of that Wednesday when, almost as a portent of things to come, the heatwave ended with a devastating explosive thunderstorm. ‘The lightning was unusually vivid and almost continuous’, reported the Yorkshire Post, ‘and the thunderclaps came like a series of sharp explosions.’ Wakefield itself escaped the worst of it but the torrential rain quickly flooded Bradford city centre and struck parts of Leeds as drains failed to cope with the sheer volume of water. Near Pontefract, farmer Henry Harrison was killed by lightning and 17-year-old Ernest Rhodes was struck at Carlton. In Castleford, miner Isaac Barnes was reported to have been temporarily blinded by a nearby strike.

  Police arrest one of the conspirators involved in the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, Sarajevo 1914.

  As the weather became more settled, events abroad as the European powers edged closer to war, took up an increasing amount of space in the papers, but it still seemed remote and few thought Britain would need to become involved. Of more immediate concern was that Wakefield’s population had already long passed the 50,000 needed for it to apply for Borough status, making it independent of the West Riding County Council, but they oppo
sed granting it and the matter was being hotly debated in Parliament and in the Yorkshire press. The Wakefield councillors argued that they needed greater powers to address local problems and, like other rapidly expanding industrial towns, issues around health and housing were rapidly becoming a serious concern. In 1910, one in five babies in Wakefield died before its first birthday, a rate twice the national average, with children of unskilled workers being twice as likely to die as those of the professional classes. The 200 deaths per 1,000 births in Wakefield contrasted sharply with 105 per 1,000 nationally, and just 60 per 1,000 in the London Borough of Hampstead. The stark numbers reflected very different living conditions.

  The rapid growth of Wakefield and its surrounding districts had seen the population rise from just over 38,000 in 1801 to 193,000 a century later, and to 234,000 on the eve of war. Such a massive rise meant that housing was in short supply and sanitation almost nonexistent. To meet demand, John Lee, a Wakefield solicitor, invested in a scheme that built only the shells of back-to-back houses, leaving the purchasers to finish the insides. Buyers looking for properties to rent rarely bothered to make them comfortable, and the result was that developments like those funded by Lee created ready-made slums as large families moved into cramped terraced homes with few, if any, of even the most basic facilities. Writing in 1869, local doctor Netten Radcliffe described housing conditions along Westgate as ‘eminently adapted to foster infectious disease’, where the cellars of some homes were almost always flooded to a depth of around 6 inches with a mixture of water, sewage and ‘liquid refuse from the slaughterhouse nearby’. An ‘abominable excrement odour’ hung over Spotted Leopard Yard, off Kirkgate, and in one yard a midden shared by several households was built directly under the scullery window of a home. In other places, they were built directly alongside the walls of houses and raw human waste seeped through the walls into family homes, where up to a hundred people shared a few small rooms.

  Living conditions in some Wakefield homes were basic and often a danger to health.

  Improvements were made but progress was slow. In 1905, the Wakefield medical officer, Thomas Gibson, identified eighty-eight houses as what he called ‘the worst of a bad lot’ and suggested they be demolished. The Sanitary Committee, he recalled, ‘… after it had recovered from the shock, decided that fourteen houses should be closed, but nine of the fourteen were eventually re-occupied after some repairs had been carried out.’ The Housing and Town Planning Act of 1909 put pressure on local authorities to do something about the worst slums, but for the generation that would go to war in 1914, the damage was already done. In his 1912 Annual Report, the medical officer for nearby Batley provides us with some idea of what such conditions meant for those living in them:

  In all cases where these children died the houses swarmed with flies, the consequence being that their food was quickly polluted. In some cases the Health Visitor reported that the houses were very untidy and the mothers did not trouble to take steps to prevent the pollution of the child’s milk although urged to do so … the outstanding features were artificial feeding and the swarms of flies. In several cases the grandmother gave directions to the mother as to the child’s feeding and on more than one occasion the Health Visitor’s report states ‘grandmother would not hear of child being breast fed’… A baby living in such a house and artificially fed is really lucky if it survives its first year of life, the probability being that it will succumb to diarrhoea before its first birthday.

  In describing one such death, the medical officer recorded:

  … one-roomed dwelling occupied by father, mother and three children. Back-to-back house. About a hundred flies in room. Large unpaved yard at side of house, also stable draining onto surface of yard and large heap of horse manure on yard. Several foul privy middens in and adjoining this yard. Rabbits and hens. Altogether the yards are in a bad state, being polluted with filth and excrement of various kinds.

  Enteric Fever was another killer easily contracted in the filthy streets:

  This child regularly sat in the gutter and played over a street gully down which the residents persistently poured slops and faecal matter although warned not to do so. The child’s hands were regularly soiled with faecal matter and he became infected.

  On average, he reported, a 13-year-old child in these conditions had the physique found in 11-year-olds in more prosperous areas, standing around 2½ inches shorter and 10lbs lighter than their compatriots. Around 60 per cent of schoolchildren had some physical disability linked to malnutrition, 90 per cent had severe dental problems and in some schools headlice infestations ran at 100 per cent. By 1914, remarkable efforts had brought Wakefield’s infant mortality rate down to 105 per 1,000 births, but it was still claimed by antipoverty campaigners throughout the war that a soldier in the front line actually had a better chance of survival than a working-class baby in its cot. In terms of the coming war, a great many would-be volunteers found themselves rejected as physically unfit for military service due to the effects of childhood deprivation.

  Child workers on pit screens. Harsh working conditions, poor diet and bad hygiene meant that when war broke out, thousands were found to be unfit for service.

  Unsurprisingly, poorer families looked in anger at the conditions they were expected to tolerate and began to demand improvements. The years leading up to 1914 have been dubbed the period of ‘the great unrest’, as one industrial action followed another in a nationwide battle to increase wages and establish better working conditions. In 1908, more days were lost to industrial action than in the whole of the previous decade and the following year a series of strikes severely hit the whole of the crucial coal industry leading the then Home Secretary, Winston Churchill, to order troops into south Wales to restore order among the 30,000 protesting miners of the area. Prime Minister Asquith had made it clear that the government would use all means to control strikers, but plans to mobilise the Territorial Force were vetoed for fear that the Territorials might, as locals themselves, choose to side with their work colleagues and neighbours. Between 1910 and 1914 the number of industrial disputes rocketed, reaching a peak of 872 in 1912, with 40 million days lost to strikes – ten times the total of any previous year. As part of a national dispute, the seaman’s strike in Hull saw 500 police officers drafted in from London to control the crowds and restore the peace after rioting began. Matters came to a head in Liverpool on 13 August 1911 as a crowd of 80,000 people marched on the city’s St George’s Hall. To contain the crowd, local police had been reinforced by officers from other areas and by troops of the Warwickshire Regiment. Fighting broke out with 186 people taken to hospital for treatment and ninety-six arrested, triggering two nights of violence. The Riot Act was read out and more troops were drafted in, supported by a naval gunboat moored in the Mersey. On 15 August, prison vans transporting many of those previously arrested to court and escorted by armed cavalrymen of the 18th Hussars were attacked by a crowd on Vauxhall Road. Bottles and bricks were hurled at the soldiers as rioters tried to grab the reins of their horses. Fearing for their lives, the Hussars opened fire, killing 20-year-old John Sutcliffe and 29-year-old Michael Prendergast and wounding three other men. Since the strikers included railwaymen who supported their fellow workers, the government found it could not move troops around the country to respond to local flare-ups as other areas protested the killings in Liverpool. Four days later – just as the strike was being settled – two more men were killed during more rioting in Llanelli when soldiers facing a hostile mob again opened fire. Across the country, up to 50,000 troops were eventually deployed to maintain order as strike after strike broke out. In Leeds, where armed troops had been deployed to guard the city’s railway stations, James O’Grady, Independent Labour Party MP for Leeds East, urged men not to enlist in the army ‘as they are thereby liable to be called out in times of industrial dispute to quell, and possibly shoot down, their fellow workers who are struggling to better their conditions’. Robert Escritt, Independent L
abour Party MP and City Councillor for East Leeds joined in with his own call that local men should not ‘don the King’s uniform, don’t take the King’s shilling. Until you know that you will not be called upon to shoot your fellow working men, don’t join the army.’ By the end of 1913, things were looking bleak and the Reverend P.D. Woods wrote in his parish magazine that ‘As we look back over 1913 we must all feel that it was a year marked by a spirit of unrest … Most of us, I feel sure, will not regret the dawning of 1914.’

  ‘Half timers’ starting work. Children would spend half their day at work, and the other half at school.

  Hard though it may have been for Reverend Woods to imagine, the new year showed that things could still get far worse. In January, a military barracks in Leeds housing police and army reinforcements brought in to manage the long running city-wide strike was damaged in a bomb attack using dynamite. Militant suffragettes were involved in small-scale arson and bombings across the country, including one at the pumping station of the Dunford Bridge reservoir, near Barnsley, that reports claimed could have resulted in serious flooding of nearby homes.

  Against this background of industrial and civil unrest and domestic terrorism came the real fear of an all-out war on the streets of Britain as tensions between nationalists and loyalists in Ireland escalated and threatened to cross the water. In March, badly phrased orders had led British troops in Ireland to refuse a command to move to protect armouries against loyalist groups if fighting broke out between the two factions, and created a crisis that undermined the British military and political leadership at a tense time in negotiating the future of Irish sovereignty. In April, the Ulster Volunteer Force had openly boasted of landing 25,000 rifles and up to 5 million rounds of ammunition at Larne in readiness for armed action against nationalists seeking an independent Ireland. In response, July saw the Irish Volunteers land 900 rifles at Howth but in marked contrast with the lack of opposition to the Larne operation, the police and army intervened and a gun battle broke out leaving three dead. The same month saw a conference at Buckingham Palace consider the partition of Ireland with all nine counties of Ulster becoming separated from the rest of the country. With a potential civil war on their own doorstep, the people of Britain were distracted from the prospect of war in Europe. Then Germany sided with its Austrian neighbours.